Version 195 of Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL demo example calculator

Updated 2020-09-06 19:24:45 by gold

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL demo example calculator, numerical analysis


This page is under development. Comments are welcome, but please load any comments in the comments section at the bottom of the page. Please include your wiki MONIKER and date in your comment with the same courtesy that I will give you. Aside from your courtesy, your wiki MONIKER and date as a signature and minimal good faith of any internet post are the rules of this TCL-WIKI. Its very hard to reply reasonably without some background of the correspondent on his WIKI bio page. Thanks, gold 12Dec2018



Introduction

gold Here is some eTCL starter code for Gauss approximate number of primes. The impetus for these calculations was checking approximations for the Riemann theorem. Most of the testcases involve assumptions and rules of thumb.

Gauss approximation

The Gauss approximation for number of primes is approx_number_primes = N1 / ln (N1), 15 percent average error. Gauss developed this formula at the age of 14! and formula was first published in 1863. If the exact solution is tabbed as one, the program is storing the exact solution in a list of limited size. The number one should not be counted as a prime and the number two is counted as prime, so some starting algorithm statements are tricky.

Legendre and Modified_Legendre approximations

The Legendre approximation for number of primes was approx_legendre_primes2 = N1 / (ln (N1)-1), 2 percent average error beyond 1E4. A variant of the Legendre equation was modified_legendre_primes3 = N1 / (ln (N1)-1.08366). In the modified Legendre error covering E6, no particular trends are seen leading from zero level, but there are some sawtooth patterns at intervals. Also the prime counting function is reported to have gaps between the primes, which might be difficult to see at this density.

        # following statements can be pasted into TCL console
        set project 1.0
        proc gaussian_primes {n} { return [/ $n [log $n] ]    }
        puts "gaussian_primes [ gaussian_primes 100   ] " #  answer 21.71472409516259 
        proc legendre_primes2 {n} { return [/ $n [- [log $n] 1.] ]   }
        puts "legendre_primes2 [ legendre_primes2 100   ] " #  answer 27.73794157864211 
        proc modified_legendre_primes3 {n} { return [/ $n [- [log $n] 1.08366] ]   }
        puts "modified_legendre_primes3 [ modified_legendre_primes3 100   ] "  #  answer 28.39690778061494 
        #  answer 25 prime_counting_functionx for 100   is    25         #  answer 25
        # nth prime f(x) =~~ 1.13*log(x)
        proc mod_percent {n} { set aa [/ $n [- [log $n] 1.08366] ] ;return [* [/ $aa $n ] 100. ]  }
        # percentage of primes at given number n from modified_legendre_primes3
        # shows increasing rarity of primes as n increases beyond 1E12
        # Riemann Hypothesis Equivalent, For all x => 2.01,abs {prime_pi(x) − Li(x)} =< sqrt(x) * log(x).
        # prime number theorem,  Li(x)=∼~ prime_pi(x) 

Devil's notch in Pcf(x)

What causes the devil's notch in the prime counting function from numbers 550 to 650? This region is best seen on the graphs of the prime counting function or the difference curves between the prime counting function and the Gauss approximation. Maybe the notch is numerical coincidence in "random noise" or human misperception, but the notch can show some of the calculator uses. The calculator and some subroutines in the TCLLIB can be used to examine this region. Using the calculator in step intervals of (450 550), (550 650), and (550 650), there was a slight increase in the number of primes as steps 14,17,14. The gauss reported predictions of 13.505,13.191,12.936 primes in the notch and adjacent regions. The corrected legendre function reported predictions of 15.696,15.281,14.947 primes in the notch and adjacent regions. The slight increase in the devil's notch goes against the general trend that primes should become more rare either in the large numbers or as N increases. The corrected legendre function is one or two off in its prediction of prime numbers in the adjacent intervals, but the expectation from both the gauss and legendre functions is a gentle decrease in primes, not a bump up to 17 primes. As the calculator passes through the devil's notch, the prime numbers can be gathered in a list and printed out on the console. Try inserting lappend list and put statements in the prime_counting_functionx or the calculator . The prime number 601 is in the middle of the notch and its nearest integer root is 25, if a prime number has such baggage. Hinkley's Tables of primes has similar intervals of 100 mapped out, but no answer leaped from the pages. (Other pages are reporting a gap of primes, starting at 521, which may be relevant. Might be useful to have calculator report gaps in prime numbers.)


Mathematicians have been fascinated with the many factors in 60. The number 60 is thought the beginning of a cliff of numbers with higher counts of factors or higher possibilities of factors. 60 is bounded by a set of twin primes as 59 and 61. Possibly there is something special about 60 or 60*10?


Ribeiro approximation and extensions

The Ribeiro paper models the error or correction function like the modified Legendre function. The modified Legendre function was $x/(log($x)-1.08366). Legendre was modeling the correction with a constant 1.08366. An equivalent expression for the Legendre function might be $x/(log($x) -1. -.08366) or $n/(log($n) -1. - error_fx($n)). Under consideration is a error model that uses the smaller quantity, ABS 0.08366 rather than ABS 1.08366 (which might allow simpler functions). The Ribeiro function starts with the setup $x/(log($x)-error_f($x)) and models the error with error_f($x) = 0.7013/$x – 4.964*exp (-0.9677*$x) + 0.98, condition that 0<+$x<10E22. The Ribeiro paper used a hand calculator or spreadsheet, effectively single precision constants. A prospective TCL procedure could be double precision TCL_17 or higher. There might be advantage in solving the error_f(x) as double precision or substituting a different modeling function with the autosolve.

Riemann fluctuations in prime counting function

The Riemann translation mentioned periodic fluctuations past 1E5. There are periodic waves (or sawtooth ) of about 1E5 (100,000 on the number line) in a chart of the ABS(prime counting function -modified legendre approximation for pcf.) Show a graph of the prime counting function minus the modified legendre function (m. legendre error) over the interval zero to 1E6. There is no particular trend leading from zero to 1E6 , but there are sawtooth patterns in the trace at regular intervals (to the eyeball). In some computer docs, the prime counting function is called the number of primes less than. The modified Legendre prime approximation is MLPA = N/ ((LN(X)-1.08336). Essentially, the dots are the numbers of primes per number on the number line from zero to one million (1E6) with the rise or growth subtracted by the modified Legendre prime approximation (to a level trace). There are similar charts on the Wolfram system (for abs(PFC-LI)) on /mathworld.wolfram.com/PrimeCountingFunction.html and /mathworld.wolfram.com/RiemannPrimeCountingFunction.html, >except< that the chart here is zero to 1E6 and the Wolfram chart is zero to 1000. The original Riemann paper quotes periodic terms. Apparently, certain periodic terms grow past 1E5, possibly fractions and powers of li. li-1/2*li(x^(1/2))-1/3*li(x^(1/3))-1/5*li(x^(1/50)+1/6*li*(x^(1/6)) ..... Might be helpful (or too much detail ) to expand or supplement the Wolfram charts to 1E6 or 3E6, as mentioned in the Riemann paper. The periodic fluctuations are not seen much below 1E5 according to Riemann.


Old_Newsflash

gold 2017-05-28. As of May2017, the TCLLIB has developed code for numberPrimesGauss, numberPrimesGauss, and numberPrimesLegendreModified in the math::numtheory.tcl and math::primes.tcl modules. For now, this supplemental numtheory.tcl code is posted on the TCLLIB website until further core approval and distribution in the formal TCLLIB library. This math::numtheory.tcl seems really exciting work, which will keep TCL in pace with some of the other brand name languages (math oriented). These formulas are in the ball park subject of the Riemann Prime Number Theory. If one can not wait, the TCL user may download the supplemental math::numtheory code into his existing TCLLIB on his personal machine. I will not repeat not duplicate the TCLLIB code on this page.


Legendre correction constant using TCLLIB prime functions in TCLLIB


In the modified_legendre prime estimate, the correction constant of 1.08366 seemed well chosen. The analysis made some hand calculations for checking some independent constants using the primes tools in the TCLLIB, particularly primes::primesLowerThan. The primesLower function found 1229 primes in the 10K natural numbers. For 10K, the correction constant was - [log 10000. / 10000. 1229. ] or 1.073643. The primesLower function found 9592 primes in 100K For 100K, the correction constant was [- [log 100000. / 100000. 9592. ] or 1.087571. Paste statement on console, set prime_count [ llength [primesLowerThan 1000000 ] results in 78498 primes. For 1000K, the correction constant was [- [log 1000000. [/ 1000000. 78498. ] or 1.076332. Using the formula and above testcases for the modified_legendre_prime_constant, a one liner program can be developed. There is a possible warning for lengthy time calls on primesLowerThan for high numbers greater than 10K.


    # scratch development on one liner program
    # preceding from fixed or hard wired formula to general formula
    proc tester1 nn  { [- [log 10000. ] [/ 10000.  1229.   ]]  }
    proc tester2 nn   { [- [log $nn ] [/  [* $nn  1.]  [ llength [ primesLowerThan   $nn ]]    ]]  }
    proc modified_legendre_prime_constant1 nn  { [- [log $nn ] [/ [* $nn  1.] [ llength [ primesLowerThan $nn ]]]]}
    # proc seemed to work better on the local TCL 8.6 set with a return statement?
    proc modified_legendre_prime_constant2 nn  { return [- [log $nn ] [/ [* $nn  1.] [ llength [ primesLowerThan $nn ]]]]}
    # possible  warning for lengthy time calls on primesLowerThan  for high numbers greater than 10K 
    # need to keep isolating spaces in math ops statements
    #Usage for 10K,   modified_legendre_prime_constant 10000   returns 1.073643
    #Usage for 100K,   modified_legendre_prime_constant 100000   returns 1.087571
    #Usage for 1000K,   modified_legendre_prime_constant 1000000   returns 1.076332


One Liner programs on Primes, Twin Primes, and Primes separated by Even Numbers


Here is the one liner program approach for various prime functions and approximations, although dependent on helper procs, math ops, and TCLLIB isprime proc. This section is not a replacement for the current TCL core and TCCLIB with much improvement since TCL4 and other <faster> language constructs. See better routines and current methods for primes in the TCL core distribution and TCLLIB. There are pros and cons to the one liner programs. Working with recursion, primes, and timing the procedures will quickly show the warts on the one liner programs. To gain speed and shorter computation times, one will generally have to access the TCL core distribution and TCLLIB. Functions math::numtheory::isprime, math::numtheory::firstNprimes, and math::numtheory::primesLowerThan are available in the TCCLIB math library. See TCLLIB & Tcllib Contents & math::numtheory Category Numerical Analysis.


In an 1849 letter, Gauss described his own results and the results of Legendre in evaluating the numbers of primes over some vast regions of the number line. The math in this section was worked out long ago by Gauss and Legendre. The modern terms and definitions here on prime number theory are more in historical interest to derive these simple TCL routines from the original work. Gauss postulated that the number of primes was <N> over < ln N>, using log for natural log hereafter. The gaussian_prime_density_approx is < number of primes > over < set of natural numbers from zero to upper limit>, <N/logN>/<N> , / $n [log $n ] / $n, which reduces to proc gaussian_prime_density_approx {aa} {/ 1. [log $aa]}. Another thought of Gauss would be to treat these prime ratios as probability. The probability of choosing a prime number from set of natural numbers from zero to upper limit would be equivalent to the gaussian prime density. The understanding here is the average gap between primes would be <N> over <N/log N> , $n / < [/ $n [log $n ]> , which reduces to gaussian_prime_average_gap_approx {aa} { log $aa}.


Legendre employed a corrective factor A of either 1 or approximately 1.08366 in his formula, P= N1 / (log (N1)-A). Commenting on the work of Legendre, Gauss pointed out that the corrective factor A must be a changing variable and appeared to decrease as N approached infinity. So the correcting factor A really seemed to be a changing function, not a constant. From Legendre, the number of primes was defined as P = <N>/ (< ln N>-A), 1/P = ( < ln N>-A)/<N>, ( < ln N>-A)=<N>*(1/P), A=( < ln N>-<N>*(1/P). Using the TCLLIB prime functions, the number of primes can be found from llength [ primesLowerThan $nn ]. So A as a constant or rather the function A evaluated near any given number would be the TCL expression { [- [log $nn / [* $nn 1. llength [ primesLowerThan $nn ] ] }. Continuing, the full procedure would be proc modified_legendre_prime_constant nn { [- [log $nn / [* $nn 1. llength [ primesLowerThan $nn]]}. Under the Legendre extension, the legendre_prime_density_approx is < number of primes > over < set of natural numbers from zero to upper limit>, <<N>/ (< ln N>-A>)/ <N>, <1>/ (< ln N>-A>). Continuing, the legendre_prime_density function might be proc legendre_prime_density_approx {nn} {/ 1. [- [log $nn 1.0866 ] }. The legendre_prime_gap_average might be proc legendre_prime_gap_average nn { [- [log $nn $A ] }, where $A approximates 1 or 1.0866.


            # average gap approximate between primes in near field, 
            # from Gauss in 1792/3 CE. approximate only, not exact
            proc gaussian_prime_density_approx {aa} {[/ 1.  [log $aa]]}
            proc gaussian_prime_average_gap_approx {aa} { [log $aa]}
            proc pg {aa} { [log $aa]}
            # check from  prime number series 3,5,7,  near 5
            #  [- 5 3] =2  ,  [- 7 5] =2 ,   pg 5 > 1.6
            # check from  prime number series  23, 29, 31, 37,  near 30
            # [- 29 23]=6, [- 31 29]=2,.[- 37 31]= 6
            #   pg 30 = 3.401, (6+2+6)/3= 4.666  
            # list_twin_primes proc  under test, list_twin_primes
            # and isprime procs are recursion limited, using TCLLIB isprime here
            proc list_twin_primes { aa bb cc} { for {set i $aa} {$i<=$bb} {incr i 1} { if {[isprime $i] && [isprime [+ $i $cc ] ] } {  lappend  boo  $i  [+ $i $cc ]   } } ; return $boo}
            # aa is lower limit or start number, 
            # bb is upper limit or end number.
            # cc is separator number, usually even 2
            # contains redundant commands for testing
            puts "[list_twin_primes 3 25 2 ]"
            puts "[list_twin_primes 3 25 4 ]"
            puts "[list_twin_primes 3 25 6 ]"
            puts "[list_twin_primes 3 25 10 ]"
            # The original Dickson conjecture has separator even numbers 2,4,6 ... ?
            # list_twin_primes 0 25 2 returns 3 5 5 7 11 13 17 19 
            # The sets <13 15> and <15 17> are separated by a even 2,
            # but left out of answer.
            # Note the 15 is not a prime number and has factors <3 5>.
            # The set <13 17> has two primes, but separated by an even 4.
            # reference On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences website
            # OEIS A077800 discussed that the twin prime sets <p,p+2> are
            # (3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13), (17, 19), 
            # (29, 31), (41, 43), (59, 61), (71, 73),
            # (101, 103), (107, 109), (137, 139)...
            # OEIS A275021 has  samples of <p,p+4> and omits pairs of <p,p+2>
            # 79, 83, 127, 131, 163, 167, 379, 383, 397, 401, 439, 443,...
            # list_twin_primes 75 135 4 returns 79 83 103 107 127 131
            # OEIS A023201 has some samples of <p,p+6> 
            # 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 23, 31, 37, 
            # 41, 47, 53, 61, 67, 73, 83, 97, 101
            # list_twin_primes 3 25 6
            # returns 5 11 7 13 11 17 13 19 17 23 23 29
            # list_twin_primes 3 25 10
            # returns 3 13 7 17 13 23 19 29

Table Results on Twin Primes for 2,4,6,10 Separators


table Twin Primes for 2,4,6,10 Separators printed inTCL format
result lower limit upper limit separator integer comment, if any
elements in list lower limit upper limit separator integer comment, if any
3 5 5 7 11 13 17 19 3 25 2
3 7 7 11 13 17 19 23 3 25 4
5 11 7 13 11 17 13 19 17 23 23 29 3 25 6
3 13 7 17 13 23 19 29 3 25 10

Prime Difference Function


scratch code under test.

    # pseudocode
    set ncat   [ llength [primesLowerThan 20]]
    # 8
    set dd [ primesLowerThan  20   ]
    # 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
    set dd  { 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 }
    proc list_twin_primes { aa bb cc} { for {set i $aa} {$i<=$bb} {incr i 1} { if {[isprime $i] && [isprime [+ $i $cc ] ] } {  lappend  boo  $i  [+ $i $cc ]   } } ; return $boo}
    # aa is lower limit or start number,
    # bb is upper limit or end number.
    # cc is separator number, usually even 2
    # under test, contains redundant commands for testing
   

Table: Prime Difference Function


table printed in TCL format
line number prime function series comment, if any
0 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 primes output from TCLLIB primesLowerThan
1 1 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 2 6 4 2 4 gaps & prime difference function 1’
2 1 0 2 -2 2 -2 2 2 -4 4 -2 -2 2 prime difference function 2’,note that some pairs have form < -X X >, < X -X >,
3 -1 2 -4 4 -4 4 0 -6 8 -6 0 4 difference function 3’
4 3 -6 8 -8 8 -4 -6 14 -14 6 4 difference function 4’
5 -9 14 -16 16 -12 -2 20 -28 20 -2 difference function 5’
6 23 -30 32 -28 10 22 -48 48 -22 difference function 6’
7 -53 62 -60 38 12 -70 96 -70 difference function 7’
8 115 -122 98 -26 -82 166 -166 difference function 8’
9 -237 220 -124 -56 248 -332 difference function 9’
10 457 -344 68 304 -580 difference function 10’

Table: Rarity of Primes as percent reported from Modified_Legendre_primes function

table Rarity of Primes mod_percent {n} Modified Legendre P. Function Prime Counting Function printed in tcl wiki format
testcase power or order TCL proc percent from mod legendre_primes mod legendre_primes prime_pi percent prime_pi comment if any
testcase 1 .5E1 not acc. 9.5097 not acc. 3 60.0 expr (3./5.)*100.
testcase 2 1E1 not acc. 8.2039 not acc. 4 40. expr (4./10.)*100.
testcase 3 1E2 28.397 28.397 25 25. expr (25./1E2)*100.
testcase 4 1E3 17.17 171.7 168 16.8 expr (168./1E3)*100.
testcase 5 1E4 12.3051 1230.514 1229 12.29 expr (1229./1E4)*100.
testcase 6 1E5 9.5884 9588.402 9592 9.592 expr (9592./1E5)*100.
testcase 7 1E6 7.854 78543.178 78498 7.8498 f(x) =(( prime_pi (x))/x)*100.
testcase 8 1E7 6.651 665139.699 664579 6.64579
testcase 9 1E8 5.768 5768003.712 5761455 5.761455
testcase 10 1E9 5.092 50917518.829 50847534 5.0847534
testcase 11 1E10 4.557 455743003.601 455052511 4.55052511
testcase 12 1E11 4.125 4124599868.665 4118054813 4.118054813
testcase 13 1E12 3.767 37668527415.329 37607912018 3.7607912018
testcase 11 1E13 3.466 346621096884.653 346065536839 3.46065536839
testcase 12 1E14 3.21 3210012022164.23 3204941750802 3.204941750802
testcase 13 1E15 2.989 29890794226981.8 29844570422669 2.9844570422669

Testcases Section

In planning any software, it is advisable to gather a number of testcases to check the results of the program. The math for the testcases can be checked by pasting statements in the TCL console. Aside from the TCL calculator display, when one presses the report button on the calculator, one will have console show access to the capacity functions (subroutines).

Testcase 1

table 1printed in tcl wiki format
quantity value comment, if any
testcase number:1
0.0 :interval L1 meters
1000000.0 :meters L2 meters
1.0 :meters
1.0 :meters
0.0 :optional,if one, invoke exact solution (? long)
72382.41365054197 :answers:approx_number_primes
-0.0 :approx_number_primes_interval_start
72382.41365054197 :approx. number_primes_over_interval
78498:exact solution from internet
8.4 :error percent

Testcase 2

table 2printed in tcl wiki format
quantity value comment, if any
testcase number:2
0.0 :interval L1 meters
5.0 :meters L2 meters
1.0 :meters
1.0 :meters
0.0 :optional,if one, invoke exact solution (? long)
3.1066746727980594 :answers:approx_number_primes
-0.0 :approx_number_primes_interval_start
3.1066746727980594 :number_primes_over_interval
3.0 :exact solution number_primes_over_interval
2.0 3.0 5.0 :list number_primes_over_interval of 0 to 5
0.55 :error percent

Testcase 3

table 3printed in tcl wiki format
quantity value comment, if any
testcase number:3
0.0 :interval L1 meters
10.0 :meters L2 meters
1.0 :meters
1.0 :meters
0.0 :optional,if one, invoke exact solution (? long)
4.3429448190325175 :answers:approx_number_primes meters
-0.0 :approx_number_primes_interval_start
4.3429448190325175 :number_primes_over_interval
4.0 :exact solution number_primes_over_interval
2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 :list number_primes_over_interval of 0 to 10
8.5 :error percent

Testcase 4

table 4printed in tcl wiki format
quantity value comment, if any
testcase number:4
0.0 :interval L1 meters
100.0 :meters L2 meters
1.0 :meters
1.0 :meters
1.0 :optional,if one, invoke exact solution (? long)
21.71472409516259 :answers:approx_number_primes meters
-0.0 :approx_number_primes_interval_start
25 :exact solution number_primes_over_interval
2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 11.0 13.0 17.0 19.0 23.0 29.0 31.0 37.0 41.0 43.0 47.0 53.0 59.0 61.0 67.0 71.0 73.0 79.0 83.0 89.0 97.0 :list number_primes_over_interval
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97 exact solution from internet
5.6 :error percent

Testcase 5

table 5printed in tcl wiki format
quantity value comment, if any
testcase number:5
0.0 :interval L1 meters
190.0 :meters L2 meters
1.0 :meters
1.0 :meters
1.0 :optional,if one, invoke exact solution (? long)
36.2110021579845 :answers:approx_number_primes meters
-0.0 :approx_number_primes_interval_start
42 : exact number_primes_over_interval meters
2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 11.0 13.0 17.0 19.0 23.0 29.0 31.0 37.0 41.0 43.0 47.0 53.0 59.0 61.0 67.0 71.0 73.0 79.0 83.0 89.0 97.0 101.0 103.0 107.0 109.0 113.0 127.0 131.0 137.0 139.0 149.0 151.0 157.0 163.0 167.0 173.0 179.0 181.0 :list number_primes_over_interval
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, 103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181 exact solution from internet
15.9 :error percent

Testcase 6

table 6printed in tcl wiki format
quantity value comment, if any
testcase number:2
0.0 :interval L1 meters
1e+27 :meters L2 meters
1.0 :meters
1.0 :meters
0.0 :optional,if one, invoke exact solution (? long)
1.608498081123155e+25 :answers:approx_number_primes
-0.0 :approx_number_primes_interval_start
1.608498081123155e+25 :approx. number_primes_over_interval from 0 to 10E26
1,699,246,750,872,437,141,327,603 28,883,358,936,853,188,823,261 155,891,678,121 58.850:exact solution from internet
5.6 :error percent

Testcase 7 , devil's notch

table 7printed in tcl wiki format
quantity value comment, if any
testcase number:7
550.0 :interval L1 devil's notch
650.0 :end number L2
1.0 :optional,if one, invoke exact solution (? long)
100.35553088418682 :answers: gauss function ~number_primes
120.51962806243556 :legendre function ~number_primes
100.35553088418682 :gauss approx_number_primes
87.164361842509408 :gauss approx_number_primes_interval_start
118 :gauss number_primes_over_interval
120.51962806243556 :legendre_function number_primes_N1
lister {557 563 569 571 577 587 593 599 601 607 613 617 619 631 641 643 647}:exact solution from prime_counting_functionx
17 :prime_counting_function over interval

Screenshots Section

figure 1.

gauss approximation of number of primes etcl caluclator PNG

figure 2.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL demo example calculator graph approx no primes

figure 3.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL demo example graphr

figure 4.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL demo example grapSSS

figure 5.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL LEGENDRE APPROXIMATION

figure 6.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL demo example absolute error

figure 7.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL large scale absolute error

figure 8.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL demo example relative error

figure 9.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes devil

figure 10.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes regular legendre error

figure 11.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes modified legrendre error

figure 12.

Gauss Approximate Number of Primes riemann traces


References:


Appendix Code

appendix TCL programs and scripts

        # pretty print from autoindent and ased editor
        # Gauss approximate number of primes calculator
        # written on Windows XP on eTCL
        # working under TCL version 8.5.6 and eTCL 1.0.1
        # gold on TCL WIKI, 15may2016
        # comment follows from gold, 12Dec2018
        # pretty print from autoindent and ased editor
        # Gauss Approximate Number of Primes Calculator V2
        # written on Windows XP on TCL
        # working under TCL version 8.6
        # Revamping older program from 2016.
        package require Tk
        package require math::numtheory
        #namespace path {math::numtheory}
        namespace path {::tcl::mathop ::tcl::mathfunc math::numtheory }
        set tcl_precision 17
        frame .frame -relief flat -bg aquamarine4
        pack .frame -side top -fill y -anchor center
        set names {{} {interval number L1  :} }
        lappend names {end number L2  :}
        lappend names {optional, if one & L2 < 190,  invoke exact solution (? long!!): }
        lappend names {answers: gauss function ~number_primes for N1 :}
        lappend names {legendre function ~number_primes for N1 :}
        lappend names {gauss approx number of primes from zero: }
        lappend names {gauss approx number of primes from zero to interval start: }
        lappend names {gauss number of primes over interval:} 
        foreach i {1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8} {
            label .frame.label$i -text [lindex $names $i] -anchor e
            entry .frame.entry$i -width 35 -textvariable side$i
            grid .frame.label$i .frame.entry$i -sticky ew -pady 2 -padx 1 }
        proc about {} {
            set msg "Calculator for Gauss Approximate Number of Primes V2
            from TCL ,
            # gold on  TCL Club, 12Dec2018 "
            tk_messageBox -title "About" -message $msg } 
            # ref. TCLLIB::math::numtheory::prime_counting_functionx 
            # ref. alternate TCLLIB::math::numtheory::isprime 
        proc self_help {} {
            set msg "  Gauss Approximate Number of Primes V2
            from TCL Club ,
            # self help listing
            # problem,  Gauss Approximate Number of Primes V2
            # 3 givens follow.
            1) interval number L1:
            2) end number L2:
            3) optional, if one & L2 < 190,  invoke exact solution (? long!!):
            # Recommended procedure is push testcase
            # and fill frame,
            # change first three entries etc, push solve,
            # and then push report.
            # Report allows copy and paste
            # from console to conventional texteditor.
            # For testcases, testcase number is internal
            # to the calculator and will not be printed
            # until the report button is pushed
            # for the current result numbers.
            # >>> copyright notice <<<
            # This posting, screenshots, and TCL source code is
            # copyrighted under the TCL/TK license terms.
            # Editorial rights and disclaimers
            # retained under the TCL/TK license terms
            # and will be defended as necessary in court.
            Conventional text editor formulas
            or  formulas grabbed from internet
            screens can be pasted into green console.
            # gold on  TCL Club, 12Dec2018 "
            tk_messageBox -title "Self_Help" -message $msg }
             proc prime_counting_function { start  end } {
             set start [int $start ]
             set end [int $end ]
             set counter 0
             if { $start > 1  } { set counter  $start  } 
             set end  $end 
             set prime_counting_function 0
             while { $counter < $end  } {
             incr counter 
             incr  prime_counting_function  [isprime $counter ] 
             }
             return $prime_counting_function }  
       proc calculate {     } {
            global answer2
            global side1 side2 side3 side4 side5
            global side6 side7 side8 
            global switch_factor big_giant_list legendre_function
            global testcase_number 
            incr testcase_number 
            set side1 [* $side1 1. ]
            set side2 [* $side2 1. ]
            set side3 [* $side3 1. ]
            set side4 [* $side4 1. ]
            set side5 [* $side5 1. ]
            set side6 [* $side6 1. ]
            set side7 [* $side7 1. ]
            set side8 [* $side8 1. ]
            set L1 $side1  
            set L2 $side2  
            set N1 $side2 
            set switch_factor $side3 
            set approx_number_primes [/ $N1   [log $N1 ] ] 
            set legendre_function  [/ $N1   [- [log $N1 ] 1.08366 ] ] 
            # conditions, all numbers real and positive. 
            # conditions L1 =! 1 and L2 > L1, otherwise division by zero and undefined Q's.
            # if { $L1 == 1.0 } { set $L1 0.0 } 
            set approx_number_primes_interval_start [/ $L1   [log $L1 ] ]
            set approx_number_primes_over_interval [- [/ $L2   [log $L2 ] ] [/ $L1   [log $L1 ] ] ]
            set side4 $approx_number_primes
            set side5 $legendre_function
            set side6 $approx_number_primes 
            set side7 $approx_number_primes_interval_start
            set side8 $approx_number_primes_over_interval
            if { $switch_factor > 0 && $L2 < 200 } { exact_solution } 
                    }
            proc listprimes { aa bb} {lappend booboo 2.0; for {set i 1} {$i<=$bb} {incr i 2} { if {[isprime $i] } {lappend booboo [expr 1.*$i]   } };return $booboo}
            #returns list of prime numbers  from aa to bb, usage [listprimes 0 25],
            # answer is 2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 11.0 13.0 17.0 19.0 23.0, 
            # list returned as real numbers, not counting 1.0 unity
               proc exact_solution {} {
            global side1 side2 side3 side4 side5
            global side6 side7 side8 big_giant_list prime_counting 
            set big_giant_list  [ listprimes $side1 $side2 ]           
            set side8 [ llength $big_giant_list ] 
             }
        proc fillup {aa bb cc dd ee ff gg hh} {
            .frame.entry1 insert 0 "$aa"
            .frame.entry2 insert 0 "$bb"
            .frame.entry3 insert 0 "$cc"
            .frame.entry4 insert 0 "$dd"
            .frame.entry5 insert 0 "$ee"
            .frame.entry6 insert 0 "$ff" 
            .frame.entry7 insert 0 "$gg"
            .frame.entry8 insert 0 "$hh" 
             }
        proc clearx {} {
            foreach i {1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 } {
                .frame.entry$i delete 0 end } }
        proc reportx {} {
            global side1 side2 side3 side4 side5
            global side6 side7 side8
            global switch_factor big_giant_list legendre_function
            global testcase_number
            console eval {.console config -bg palegreen}
            console eval {.console config -font {fixed 20 bold}}
            console eval {wm geometry . 40x20}
            console eval {wm title . " Gauss Approximate Number of Primes V2 Report, screen grab and paste from console 2 to texteditor"}
            console eval {. configure -background orange -highlightcolor brown -relief raised -border 30}
            console show;
            puts "%|table $testcase_number|printed in| tcl wiki format|% "
            puts "&| quantity| value| comment, if any|& "
            puts "&| testcase number:|$testcase_number | |&"
            puts "&| $side1 :|interval L1   |   |&"
            puts "&| $side2 :|end number L2  | |& "  
            puts "&| $side3 :|optional,if one,  invoke exact solution (? long) | |& "
            puts "&| $side4 :|answers: gauss function ~number_primes| |&"
            puts "&| $side5 :|legendre function ~number_primes| |&"
            puts "&| $side6 :|gauss approx_number_primes  |  |&"
            puts "&| $side7 :|gauss approx_number_primes_interval_start |  |&"
            puts "&| $side8 :|gauss number_primes_over_interval |  |&" 
            puts "&| $legendre_function :|legendre_function number_primes_N1|  |&"
            if {$switch_factor > 0.0} { puts "&| [prime_counting_function $side1 $side2  ] :|prime_counting_function over interval|  |&" }
            if {$switch_factor > 0.0 && $side2 < 190.} {puts "&| $big_giant_list :|list number_primes_over_interval |  |&" }
            }
        frame .buttons -bg aquamarine4
        ::ttk::button .calculator -text "Solve" -command { calculate   }
        ::ttk::button .test2 -text "Testcase1" -command {clearx;fillup 0.0 1E1 1.0 4.3  8.20  4.3 0.00 4.30}
        ::ttk::button .test3 -text "Testcase2" -command {clearx;fillup 0.0 5.0 1.0 3.1  9.50  3.1 0.00 3.10 }
        ::ttk::button .test4 -text "Testcase3" -command {clearx;fillup 1E3 1E6 1.0 7E5  7E5 72382.0 0.0 72382.0 }
        ::ttk::button .clearallx -text clear -command {clearx }
        ::ttk::button .about -text about -command {about}
        ::ttk::button .self_help -text self_help -command { self_help }
        ::ttk::button .cons -text report -command { reportx }
        ::ttk::button .exit -text exit -command {exit}
        pack .calculator  -in .buttons -side top -padx 10 -pady 5
        pack  .clearallx .cons .self_help .about .exit .test4 .test3 .test2   -side bottom -in .buttons
        grid .frame .buttons -sticky ns -pady {0 10}
               . configure -background aquamarine4 -highlightcolor brown -relief raised -border 30
        wm title . "Gauss Approximate Number of Primes Calculator V2"

Pushbutton Operation

For the push buttons, the recommended procedure is push testcase and fill frame, change first three entries etc, push solve, and then push report. Report allows copy and paste from console.

For testcases in a computer session, the eTCL calculator increments a new testcase number internally, eg. TC(1), TC(2) , TC(3) , TC(N). The testcase number is internal to the calculator and will not be printed until the report button is pushed for the current result numbers. The current result numbers will be cleared on the next solve button. The command { calculate; reportx } or { calculate ; reportx; clearx } can be added or changed to report automatically. Another wrinkle would be to print out the current text, delimiters, and numbers in a TCL wiki style table as

  puts " %| testcase $testcase_number | value| units |comment |%"
  puts " &| volume| $volume| cubic meters |based on length $side1 and width $side2   |&"  

Console program used to build csv spreadsheet charts.

                  # autoindent from ased editor
                  # console program for graph numbers 
                  # written on Windows XP on eTCL
                  # working under TCL version 8.5.6 and eTCL 1.0.1
                  # TCL WIKI , 12dec2016
             console show
             package require math::numtheory
             #namespace path {math::numtheory}
             namespace path {::tcl::mathop ::tcl::mathfunc math::numtheory }
             set tcl_precision 17
             proc factors {} {
             set counter 0
             set prime_counting_function 0
             while {$counter < 500} {
             puts " [* $counter 1.] ,  [/ [* $counter 1.] [log [* $counter 1.]] ],  [isprime $counter ],  $prime_counting_function   "
             incr counter 
             incr  prime_counting_function  [isprime $counter ] 
             }
             return }
             factors

console output

 2.0 ,  2.8853900817779268,  1,  1   
 3.0 ,  2.7307176798805122,  1,  2   
 4.0 ,  2.8853900817779268,  0,  2   
 5.0 ,  3.1066746727980594,  1,  3   
 6.0 ,  3.3486637593074837,  0,  3   
 7.0 ,  3.5972883965882549,  1,  4   
 8.0 ,  3.8471867757039027,  0,  4   
 9.0 ,  4.0960765198207678,  0,  4   
 10.0 ,  4.3429448190325175,  0,  4   
             # under test, biasing approx. from interval to save computer time
       proc prime_counting_function { start  end } {
             set counter 0
             if { $start > 1  } { set counter [int $start ]  } 
             set end [int $end ] 
             set prime_counting_function 0
             while { $counter < $end  } {
             incr counter 
             incr  prime_counting_function  [isprime $counter ] 
             }
             return $prime_counting_function }  
        proc biased_count { N1    } {
             set N1 [int $N1 ]
             set bias1 [* 1. [ prime_counting_function [int  [* $N1 .99] ] $N1 ]]
             set bias2  [* 1. [ prime_counting_function $N1 [int [* $N1 1.01]]   ]]
             puts " $bias1 "
             puts " $bias2 "
             set bias 1.
             set approx_number_primes 1.
             set bias [expr  $bias2/ double($bias1)  ] 
             puts " $bias $bias2   $bias1 "
             set approx_number_primes [* [/ $N1   [log $N1 ] ] $bias ]
             return $approx_number_primes
             }

Console program for devil's notch


        # pretty print from autoindent and ased editor
        # testing devil's notch
        # prime number function from TCLLIB  
        # written on Windows XP
        # working under TCL version 8.6.6
        # gold on TCL WIKI , 20dec2017
        package require Tk
        package require math::numtheory
        package require math::constants
        #package require math::bigfloat
        namespace path {::tcl::mathop ::tcl::mathfunc math::numtheory  math::constants }
       console show
       # corrected legendre_function  
       proc leg {N1 N2 } {
       set legendre_function  [/ $N1   [- [ ::tcl::mathfunc::log $N1 ] 1.08366 ] ] 
       set legendre_functionx  [/ $N2   [- [ ::tcl::mathfunc::log $N2 ] 1.08366 ] ] 
       return [- $legendre_functionx $legendre_function  ]
       }
       set numberx [ ::math::numtheory::prime_counting_functionx   450  550  ]
       puts "prime counting function  $numberx  corrected legendre [ leg 450. 550. ] "
       set numberx [ ::math::numtheory::prime_counting_functionx   550  650  ]
       puts "prime counting function  $numberx  corrected legendre [ leg 550. 650. ] "
       set numberx [ ::math::numtheory::prime_counting_functionx   650  750  ]
       puts "prime counting function  $numberx  corrected legendre [ leg 650. 750. ] "
       # padded statements into <local> ::math::numtheory::prime_counting_functionx   
       # for list of primes in interval 
       #if {[::math::numtheory::isprime $counter ] } {  lappend lister $counter }
       #      }
       # puts $lister

Alternate Console programs for prime_counting_function

        # pretty print from autoindent and ased editor
        # console program for prime_counting_function
        # keywords prime counting function
        # written on Windows XP on  TCL
        # working under TCL version 8.6
        # gold on TCL WIKI, 4feb2018
        package require Tk
        package require math::numtheory
        namespace path {::tcl::mathop ::tcl::mathfunc math::numtheory }
        set tcl_precision 17
        console show
        # adapted from sum_primes_to by dkf
        # from  Comparing Tcl and Python on TCL WIKI
        # advantage: no dependency on expr or isprime.
        # large numbers > 10E3 can take a long time.
        proc prime_counting_function {n {i 1}} {
            set total 0
            incr n 0
            for {set q [+ $i $i ]} {$q < $n} {incr q} {
                if {![info exists d($q)]} {
                    incr total
                    lappend d([* $q $q ]) $q
                } else {
                    foreach p $d($q) {
                        lappend d([+ $p $q ]) $p
                    }
                    unset -nocomplain d($q)
                }
            }
            return $total
        }
        puts " prime_counting_function for 100 , answer [prime_counting_function 100]
        puts " time note   [ time {prime_counting_function 100} 100 ] "
        #  prime_counting_function for 100 , answer 25
        #  time note   273.35 microseconds per iteration 

        # pretty print from autoindent and ased editor
        # written on Windows XP on TCL
        # working under TCL version 8.6
        # gold on TCL WIKI , 2feb2018
        package require Tk
        package require math::numtheory
        namespace path {::tcl::mathop ::tcl::mathfunc math::numtheory}
        set tclprecision 17
        console show
        # based on all_primes proc in Sample Math Programs on TCL WIKI
        proc prime_counting_functiont {max} {
            # from  rwt? on TCL WIKI
            set counter 1
            set primes [list 2]
            for {set test 3} {$test <= $max} {incr test 2} {
                set maxTest [int [sqrt $test ]]
                foreach prime $primes {
                    if {$prime  > $maxTest} {
                        # puts $test list omitted for time save
                        lappend primes $test
                        incr counter
                        break
                    }
                    if {![% $test $prime ]} {
                        break
                    }
                }
            }
            return $counter
        }
        puts " prime_counting_functiont answer [ prime_counting_functiont 100]"
        puts " prime_counting_functiont time note   [ time { prime_counting_functiont 100 } 300 ]  "
        # prime_counting_functiont answer 25
        # prime_counting_functiont time note   165.896 microseconds per iteration 

table timing on prime testers from TCL WIKI and “homebrew” printed in tcl wiki format
program principle authors time microseconds comment, if any
ispprimeoff_site caveat1.75 testing n=100 for all, divisor algorithm,n<?
::numtheory::isprimeTCLLIB2.623 testing n=100 for all
prime:RS 3.313 testing n=100 for all
primeCheckFermat :rwm 7.12 working fast, but checks all cases?
primetest :WIKI? 21.443
primetest2 :RS 21.853
isprimex :perl_hacker 29.973
prime_counting_functiont : modified all_primes from rwt? on TCL WIKI 159.25 Px (100)=25
prime_counting_function plus math::isprime : homebrew 245.51 Px (100)=25
prime_counting_functionx minus math::isprime : homebrew 263.5 Px (2 100)=25

Console program for sum of reciprocal squares of prime numbers.

The prime zeta function is a subset of the Riemann Zeta Function. Using powers of prime numbers in the denominator, a general TCL expression might be P(n)= 1./(** 2 n)+1./(** 3 n)+1./(** 5 n) ... with n as the positive power or order. P(1) is divergent.

P(2), where P is the "prime zeta function," at infinity is 0.4522474200. Testcase1 is expr { 1./(2*2)+1./(3*3)+1./(5*5)}, 0.4011111111111111.TCL proc gives answer 0.4011 , time note 27.809 microseconds per iteration. Testcase2 is expr { 1./(2*2)+1./(3*3)+1./(5*5)+1./(7*7)+1./(11*11)+1./(13*13)}], 0.4357008969496481. TCL proc gives answer 0.4357, time note 38.409 microseconds per iteration. Testcase3 for 10000 , proc gives answer 0.4522376, time note 48100.309 microseconds per iteration.

        # following statements can be pasted into TCL console
        set project 1.0
        set P_2 expr { 1./(2*2)+1./(3*3)+1./(5*5)} #0.40111 
        set P_2 expr { 1./(2*2)+1./(3*3)+1./(5*5)+1./(7*7)+1./(11*11)+1./(13*13)} # 0.43570 

Proc could be modified with args to return P(2),P(3) etc. P(1) is divergent. I don't see this in math::numtheory::isprime, but TCLLIB is a big file system. Also checking division by 2 would eliminate some steps.


Table for prime_zeta_function

table testcases numberprinted in tcl wiki format
testcase P(order)TCL n value TCL proc prime_zeta_function P(order) standard at inf comment, if any
testcase 1 2 1E6 0.45224735226537194 0.452247
testcase 2 3 1E6 0.17476263929927133 0.174763
testcase 3 4 1E6 0.076993139764243643 0.0769931
testcase 4 5 1E6 0.035755017483924012 0.035755
testcase 5 6 1E6 0.017070086850636487 0.0170701
testcase 6 7 1E6 0.0082838328561335856 0.00828383
testcase 7 8 1E6 0.0040614053665178288 0.00406141

---

        # pretty print from autoindent and ased editor
        # console program for prime_zeta_function
        # keywords sum  squares prime zeta function Sieve Eratosthenes
        # written on Windows XP on  TCL
        # working under TCL version 8.6
        # gold on TCL WIKI, 4feb2018
        package require Tk
        package require math::numtheory
        namespace path {::tcl::mathop ::tcl::mathfunc math::numtheory }
        set tcl_precision 17
        console show
        # adapted from sum_primes_to by dkf
        # from  Comparing Tcl and Python on TCL WIKI
        # advantage: no dependency on expr or isprime.
        # large numbers n  > 10E3 can take a long time.
        # P(order 1) is divergent, P(n),n>1 should be convergent.
        proc prime_zeta_function {bb n} {
            # tally sequence of prime numbers via the Sieve of Eratosthenes.
            # n is highest integer to test
            # i subintegers to test as factors
            # D()  # map composite integers to primes witnessing their compositeness
            # q = integer to test for primality (usually starts at 2 )
            # total here, sum of reciprocals of prime squares or powers
            # bb is square or power for reciprocal denominator
            # prime zeta function P(1) is divergent at inf, higher P() converge
            # if q and p are odd, q+2*p will always be odd. 
            # all even numbers n() are not prime, except 2.
            set total 0
            incr n 0
            set i 1
            for {set q [+ $i $i ]} {$q < $n} {incr q} {
                if {![info exists d($q)]} {
                    # add 1/n**bb to tatal if n prime
                    set total [+ $total [/ 1. [* $q $q ] ]]
                    # add to current map 
                    lappend d([* $q $q ]) $q
                } else {
                    # move each witness to its next multiple
                    foreach p $d($q) {
                        lappend d([+ $p $q ]) $p
                    }
                    unset -nocomplain d($q)
                    # dump map
                }
            }
            return $total
        }
        puts " prime_zeta_function for {2 6} , answer [prime_zeta_function 2 6] "
        puts " time note   [ time {prime_zeta_function 2 5} 100 ] "
        puts " prime_zeta_function for {2 10000} , answer [prime_zeta_function 2 10000 ] "
        puts " time note   [ time {prime_zeta_function 2 10000} 100 ] "       
        # prime_zeta_function for {2 6} , answer 0.40111111111111108 
        # time note   11.390000000000001 microseconds per iteration 
        # prime_zeta_function for {2 10000} , answer 0.45223760433995064 
        # time note   71381.509999999995 microseconds per iteration 

         proc report {n} {
         set count 1
         set lister {}
         set lister {0. 0.452247 0.174763 0.0769931 0.035755 0.0170701 0.00828383 0.00406141 0.00200447 0.000993604 }
         puts "%|table testcases number||||printed in| tcl wiki format|% "
         puts "%|testcase |P(order)|TCL n value |TCL proc prime_zeta_function |P() standard at inf | comment, if any|% "            
         foreach item { 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 } {
         puts "&| testcase $count | $item |1E6  |[ prime_zeta_function $item 1000000 ] | [lindex $lister $count]||&"
         incr count 1
         }}
         report 2

References:


Credits on One Liner Programs

  • WIKI BOOKS, Tcl_Programming_Introduction
  • license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/legalcode
  • creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
  • en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Tcl_Programming_Introduction >>>pdf<<<
  • Sample Math Programs, item 2, RS
  • TCLLIB math::mean is quicker by a third over some homebrew code.
  • Additional math functions
  • en.wikipedia.org One-liner_program
  • One liners of Basic and history, 10_PRINT_121114.pdf
  • Summing a list
  • Tcllib Contents
  • stackoverflow.com/questions 36832927 using-globs-in-perl-replace-one-liner-in-tcl-script
  • www.rexegg.com regex-perl-one-liners
  • Regular Expressions Cookbook, Second Edition
  • Learning Regular Expressions
  • Beyond Regular Regular Expressions
  • Mastering Regular Expressions, 3e
  • # credit Tcl and Tk Programming for the Absolute Beginner by KURT WALL
  • bbcmicro.co.uk on Commodore Basic
  • Acorn User One-Line Games (Escape From Voros, Lexxias, Race To Varpon,
  • Storm Clouds Over Zaqqit, Zander (AKA Lurch))". bbcmicro.co.uk on Commodore Basic
  • blog.eduonix.com, perl_programming,learn-one-liners-perl-programming
  • en.wikipedia.org , One-liner_program
  • RUN magazine issue 35 on Basic language
  • Richard Socher, Perl Scripts And One Liners
  • Introduction to Perl One-Liners (PDF), Peteris Krumins
  • Perl one-liner if else logic - Stack Overflow
  • How to Match Multiple Lines using Regex in Perl One-liners
  • By Eric Ma , In Programming, Tutorial
  • Time
  • How to Measure Performance
  • timers
  • Category Performance
  • see www.altparty.org archive/invi.tcl Setok ref.
  • Why Tcl is so much slower than Perl, pros and cons
  • Playing with recursion
  • Category Numerical Analysis
  • TCLLIB numtheory section
  • Gauss Approximate Number of Primes and eTCL demo example calculator
  • math::numtheory::isprime
  • math::numtheory::firstNprimes
  • math::numtheory::primesLowerThan
  • math::numtheory::primeFactors
  • math::numtheory::numberPrimesGauss
  • math::numtheory::numberPrimesLegendre
  • math::numtheory::numberPrimesLegendreModified
  • math::numtheory::differenceNumberPrimesLegendreModified
  • On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences , OEIS
  • Andrew Granville, Primes in intervals of bounded length, Joint Math Meeting, Jan 17 2014.
  • J. C. Evard, Twin primes and their applications, archived Pdf
  • James Maynard, Small gaps between primes, arXiv:1311.4600 , 2013, Annals of Mathematics,


gold This page is copyrighted under the TCL/TK license terms, this license .

Comments Section

Please place any comments here, Thanks.




arjen - 2020-09-02 14:44:34

IF you check the Page on the Prime Number Theorem you will find a whopping large number, the (first) Skewes number in relation to the statement "pi(x) ~c Li(x)" ... It fascinates me that people can find out such things :).