NEM 2006-04-19: This page shows a simple technique I've been using for a little while now, making use of some of the cool new features in the 8.5 development version of Tcl. I thought I'd write up this page to show how you can create lightweight closures and simple objects using these techniques, and how the new features enable this.
A closure is a function or procedure that captures the lexical/static environment in which it is defined: it closes over the local variables that are visible at the moment of definition. Tcl's procedures don't do this: the only variables that are visible in a procedure by default are parameters and any local variables created in the body of the procedure. The global/variable and upvar commands allow you to also import other variables from the global and dynamic scope when the procedure is called, but there is no general way to remember the environment in which a procedure was defined. This page shows a limited way to do this.
Firstly, we need a way to capture the current environment. This is easy enough to do with Tcl's powerful introspection capabilities:
proc capture {} {
set env [dict create]
foreach name [uplevel 1 { info locals }] {
if {$name eq "__env__"} { continue }
upvar 1 $name var
catch { dict set env $name $var } ;# no arrays
}
return $env
}This simple procedure captures the current value of every local variable in the current environment. Note that we don't bother capturing global variables, as these are available anyway. Note also that we only capture the current value of each variable, and not the variable itself. This is a limitation of the current approach, which it is hard to work around: variables are not first-class values in Tcl, so we can't put them in a dictionary. Nevertheless, there is a lot you can do with just values as we shall see.
Now we can capture the current environment, we need to create a constructor for creating our closures. We will call this "func", and give it a similar syntax to that for proc, but with the addition that we will allow the name argument to be optional:
proc func args {
if {[llength $args] < 2 || [llength $args] > 3} {
error "wrong # args: should be \"func ?name? params body\""
}
# func ?name? params body
set params [lindex $args end-1]
set body [lindex $args end]
# Capture environment and namespace of definition
set env [uplevel 1 { capture }]
set ns [uplevel 1 { namespace current }]
# Arrange to restore the environment when run
set params [linsert $params 0 __env__]
set body [list dict with __env__ $body]
# Use 8.5's [apply] command to evaluate the procedure
set func [list $params $body $ns]
set cmd [list ::apply $func $env]
if {[llength $args] == 3} {
set name [nsjoin $ns [lindex $args 0]]
interp alias {} $name {} {*}$cmd
return $name
} else {
return $cmd
}
}
# A little helper to make a name fully-qualified
proc nsjoin {ns name} {
if {![string match ::* $name]} {
if {$ns eq "::"} {
set name ::$name
} else {
set name ${ns}::$name
}
}
return $name
}This looks a bit more complicated, but it is really fairly simple when stripped to its basics. Firstly, we capture the current environment using our "capture" procedure. Then, we rearrange the parameters of the procedure to take an initial "__env__" argument. This is similar to the technique used in some implementations of object oriented programming where a method takes an initial "self" parameter. We then construct a call to apply which will take care of evaluating the procedure when it is called. Apply is a new command in 8.5 for creating anonymous procedures, and here we see how flexible it is. As well as the parameters, body, and namespace of definition, we also add on the captured environment as the first argument to the procedure. We then adjust the body of the procedure to call dict with, which will restore the environment by creating local variables corresponding to each element in the dictionary.
So, let's see how this works by trying some examples:
% func make-adder a { func b { expr {$a + $b} } }
::make-adderThis is a function that takes a number "a", and returns a new function that will add "a" to any argument it is passed:
% set plus2 [make-adder 2]
::apply {{__env__ b} {dict with __env__ { expr {$a + $b} }} ::} {a 2}
% eval $plus2 3
5
% eval $plus2 8
10
% eval $plus2 [eval [make-adder 5] 3]
10OK, apart from the ugly string representation of our adder functions, everything seems to work correctly. Let's try some more advanced examples. Here we show how similar closures are to objects, by creating a simple person "class", complete with instances and methods. Like an object, this is an example of procedural abstraction in that we have hidden the details of our person instances inside a function which only allows you to invoke defined methods:
% func person {name age} {
set getName [func {} { return $name }]
set getAge [func {} { return $age }]
return [func {method args} { eval [set $method] $args }]
}
::person
% set neil [person "Neil Madden" 25]
::apply ... (lengthy string rep elided) ...
% eval $neil getName
Neil Madden
% eval $neil getAge
25We can start tidying this up a bit by creating "class" and "method" functions that hide some of this boilerplate:
proc class {name slots body} {
func $name $slots {
eval $body
func {method args} { eval [set $method] $args }
}
return $name
}
proc method {name params body} {
uplevel 1 "set $name \[func [list $params] [list $body]\]"
}
proc send {object args} { uplevel 1 $object $args }Now our code starts looking a bit more familiar:
% class Point {x y z} {
method getX {} { return $x }
method getY {} { return $y }
method getZ {} { return $z }
method add p2 {
Point [+ $x [send $p2 getX]] \
[+ $y [send $p2 getY]] \
[+ $z [send $p2 getZ]]
}
method toString {} { return "($x,$y,$z)" }
}
Point
% proc + {a b} { expr {$a + $b} }
+
% set p1 [Point 3 4 5]
... (much stuff!) ...
% set p2 [send $p1 add $p1]
... (more stuff) ...
% puts "p2 = [send $p2 toString]"
p2 = (6,8,10)As you can see, there is still a way to go before something like this rivals serious OO frameworks like XOTcl or Incr Tcl, but hopefully it shows that you can do quite a lot with very little code in Tcl 8.5. It is also worth noting that these objects, like TOOT objects, are values: they are automatically cleaned up when no longer referenced. If nothing else, this gives a nice little demo of some of the powerful new features in Tcl 8.5, and another perspective on what an object is.
Here's an alternate version that wraps apply with a little tailcall trickery so that things are defanged:
package require Tcl 8.6
proc closure {script} {
set valuemap {}
foreach v [uplevel 1 {info vars}] {
if {![uplevel 1 [list array exists $v]]} {
lappend valuemap [list $v [uplevel 1 [list set $v]]]
}
}
set body [list $valuemap $script [uplevel 1 {namespace current}]]
return [list apply [list {} [list tailcall apply $body]]]
}To make a closure, just do (inside a context with local variables, of course):
closure { the script you want to wrap }To execute the closure, just do:
{*}$theClosureThe odd construct with [[tailcall] acts to make it impossible to pass further arguments into the closure and cause problems that way.
NEM 2006-10-15: It occurred to me recently that the way to achieve full mutable closures in Tcl is to separate out the mutable state from the rest of the procedure. That enables use of mutable closures in many places where they are desireable, if not being a complete solution. To be more precise, I am proposing a -environment envVar option to apply, that would allow it to behave somewhat like dict with -- when apply creates the new procedure scope, it first initialises the var frame with bindings for each key/value entry in the dictionary contained in the variable envVar. Then arguments are bound as normal, and the body of the procedure is evaluated. When the procedure returns, apply would read the new values of each variable from the environment and update envVar with the new dictionary (much like dict with does, except that the actual envVar is not visible in the procedure body). With such an option in place, we can write code like the following:
proc map {func env list end} {
foreach item $list {
closure apply -environment env $func $item
}
closure apply -environment env [list {} $end ::]
}
set myenv {sum 0}
set func [list {item} { incr sum $item } ::]
map $func $myenv {1 2 3 4 5} { puts "sum = $sum" }It may not be immediately obvious why this is useful, but the key thing is that the "sum" variable is actually an entry in a dictionary. This means that we can pass around a complete closure -- both a lambda and an accompanying variable environment -- as a first-class string value. When we come to apply the closure, we can then mutate the variable holding the environment dictionary and pass on the new version. Hence we get mutable closures of a sort -- things like variable traces wouldn't survive, but the basic functionality works. What this means is that we could potentially change that foreach loop to use after to schedule evaluation using the event loop. The client code essentially wouldn't change, only the loop:
proc map {func env list end} {
if {[llength $list] == 0} {
closure apply -environment env [list {} $end ::]
} else {
closure apply -environment env $func [lindex $list 0]
after 1000 [list map $func $env [lrange $list 1 end] $end]
}
}
map $func $myenv {1 2 3 4 5} { puts "sum = $sum" }
vwait forever ;# prints "sum = 15" after 5 secondsNotice that the call to map is identical in both cases, even though the evaluation strategy used was completely different. Notice also that $myenv is left unchanged: mutation of state is nicely confined to just a local effect where it is needed.
To round off, here is a poor man's implementation of closure apply. To really get this correct (and efficient) it would have to be part of apply itself, I think.
# closure.tcl --
#
# Minimal closures layered over [apply] and [dict with].
#
# Copyright (c) 2006 Neil Madden.
#
# License: http://www.cs.nott.ac.uk/~nem/license.terms (Tcl-style).
#
package require Tcl 8.5
package provide closure 0.1
namespace eval closure {
namespace export apply
namespace ensemble create
# apply ?-environment envVar? func args... --
#
# Enhanced version of Tcl's apply command, that takes an optional
# environment variable, which is a dictionary specifying the initial
# environment of the closure. Changes made to the variables in the
# environment are reflected back into the environment variable,
# allowing for mutable closures.
#
proc apply args {
set usage "closure apply ?-environment envVar? func args..."
if {[llength $args] == 0} {
return -code error "wrong # args: should be \"$usage\""
}
if {[lindex $args 0] eq "-environment"} {
if {[llength $args] < 3} {
return -code error "wrong # args: should be \"$usage\""
}
set envVar [lindex $args 1]
upvar 1 $envVar env
set args [lrange $args 2 end]
} else {
set env [dict create]
}
set args [lassign $args func]
lassign $func params body ns
if {$ns eq ""} { set ns "::" }
set body [format {
upvar 1 env __env__
dict with __env__ { %s }
} $body]
::apply [list $params $body $ns] {*}$args
}
}NEM 2006-10-16: Alternatively, the functionality could be rolled into the dict ensemble as a dict apply command:
dict apply dictVar lambda args...